话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
二、知识点
1.语用学的几个重要的理论
⑴言语行为理论Speech act theory   
由英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出
在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives
在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为
例子：you have left the door wide open.
Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean.
Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door.
Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.
※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣
cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer.
⑵会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice提出;
 
 
 
2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle
 数量 the maxim of Quantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求
              Make your contribution as informative as required;
              Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
质量the maxim of Quality -----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话
        Do not say what you believe to false.
        Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence
关系 the maxim of relation-----使你的话与话题相关be relevant
方式 the maxim of manner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序
       Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;
       Be brief/be orderly.
3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类
阐述性Representatives---to commit the speaker to something’s being the
                                           Case ,to the truth of what has been said.
   例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性,
   指令性Directives---are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do
                                something.
  例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening,
          ordering  是特有实例
   承诺性Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself under
                                         obligation.
  例词:promising, undertaking, vowing最典型
表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards
                                   an existing state of affairs.
   例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating
宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings
                               about the correspondence between what is said and reality.    
  例句
I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you.
  这五类differ in their strength or force.
4.Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
5.语境中听者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types:
 The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.