An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
  论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。
18.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication (has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).
19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication. the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect. it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.
20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.
三、问答题
1.how are sense and reference related?
  Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
  Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.
2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
 In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.
3.what’s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all



Chapter 6     pragmatics
一 、定义
1.语境Context
  The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
2.言语行为理论Speech act theory
It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” 
The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.
3.叙述句Constatives
 Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.;
4.行为句Performatives
Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.
5.言内行为Locutionary Act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it’s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
6.言外行为Illcotionary Act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention it’s the act performed  in saying something.
7.言后行为 Perlocutionary  Act
Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it’s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance.
8.句子意义Sentence meaning
It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.
9.话语意义Utterance meaning
It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.
10.合作原则Cooperative Principle
It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.
11.会话含义Conversational implicatures
According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.