c)    Words Differing in Emotive or Evaluative Meanings 感情或评价意义不一的同义词
These words have the same cognitive meaning but different emotive or evaluative meanings. (e.g. statesman and politician).
d)    Collocationally-restricted Synonyms 搭配限制同义词
These words can be considered as synonyms only when they occur in conjunction with certain words (e.g. beautiful and handsome).
e)    Near Synonyms 近义词
They are close in meaning or their meanings overlap.
Polysemy and Homonymy  多义现象和同音异义现象
a)    Polysemy
It refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set of different meanings.
b)    Homonymy
   It refers to the case that two, or more meanings may be associated with the same linguistic form. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.
Hyponymy 上下义关系
   It refers to a paradigmatic relation between a more specific, or subordinate, lexeme and a more general, or superordinate, lexeme. This relation indicates the notion of inclusion in the sense that cow is included in animal. The ‘upper’ term like animal is called superordinate and the ‘lower’ term like cow is called the hyponym. All the members that can be grouped under the same superordinate are called co-hyponyms.
Antonymy 反义现象
   Antonymy refers to the ‘oppositeness of meaning’ between lexemes. There are several types of lexical opposites in language.
a)    Gradable Opposites 可分等级的反义词
Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.
b)    Complementary Antonyms 互补反义现象
A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. 
c)    Relational Opposites 关系反义词
Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.
4. Componential Analysis 成分分析法
  Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by semanticists in describing the meaning of words and phrases. This approach rests upon the thesis that the total meaning of a word can be analysed in terms of a number of distinct elements or components of meaning (semantic features).
4.1 Components of Meaning ( a way to analyse lexical meaning) 意义成分
   Componential analysis is often seen as a process aiming at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features, which are also called components by some linguists.
4.2 Meaning Relation in terms of Componential Analysis 成分分析法中的意义关系
   According to Leech, there are in general four componential relationships, which can be separated into two pairs.
   a) The Relations between Form and Meaning 形式与意义的关系
 i) Synonymy --- more than one form having the same meaning.
 ii) Polysemy --- the same form having more than one meaning.
   b) The relations between Two Meanings 意义间的关系
i)     Hyponymy is the inclusion of one meaning in another.
ii) Incompatibility is the exclusion one meaning from another.
Of the four types, Leech concentrates on two types: hyponymy and incompatibility. Hyponymy refers to the relationship which exists between two meanings if one componential formula contains all the features present in the other formula. Incompatibility refers to the relationship which exists between two meanings if one componential formula contains at least one feature contrasting with a feature in the other.
5. Sentence Meaning 句子意义
5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence? 什么是句子的意义？
   The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. In other words, it is the product of the meaning of the constituent lexemes and of the grammatical constructions that relate one lexeme, syntactically, to another.
5.2 Selectional restrictions 选择性限制
   In discussing the meaning of a sentence, people often need to consider the question of meaningfulness and grammaticality.
   Grammaticality means whether a sequence of lexical items constitute an utterance which is grammatically well-formed, or whether it is grammatically acceptable to native speakers according to their intuition.
   Meaningfulness, on the other hand, refers to the semantic well-formedness of a sentence. Such a sentence is semantically acceptable to native speakers, or in other words, it is a sentence the native speakers can interpret and understand.
   There are many constraints on what lexical items can combine with what others. Such constraints are called selectional restrictions because they govern the selection of lexical items for insertion into underlying structures.
5.3 Basic Statements about Meaning 意义的基本表述
   There are certain relations between sentences and also between constituents of the same sentence.
(i)    X is synonymous with Y.
e.g. X: He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
   In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.
(ii) X entails Y. 
  e.g. X: John married a blond heiress.
      Y: John married a blond.
 Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.
(iii) X is inconsistent with Y.
  e.g. X: John is married.
      Y: John is a bachelor.
  In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.
(iv) X is a tautology.
  e.g. X: This bachelor is not married.
(v) X is a contradiction.
  e.g. X: This bachelor is married.
(vi) X is presupposes Y.
  e.g. X: The girl John married was an heiress.
      Y: John married a girl.
(vii) X is semantically anomalous.
  e.g. The table has bad intentions.
6. Predication Analysis (a way to analyze sentence meaning) 述谓结构分析
6.1    Predication, argument and Predicate 述谓结构、变元和谓项
In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication, which is not identical to the proposition, but is rather the common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence
6.2    Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析
Predication analysis refers to the kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents --- arguments and predicates. There are three general types of predication --- two-place, one-place and no-place predications.
6.3    Subordinate and Downgraded Predications 从属述谓结构和降格述谓结构
a)    Subordinate Predications 从属述谓结构
It is suggested in the theory that a predicate may govern not only arguments, but other predicates. These other predicates can form subordinate predications within the main predication.
b)    Downgraded Predications 降格述谓结构
There is a second way in which one predication may be included within another. It is realized by reducing the predication still further to the status of a feature instead of that of an argument.
There are two main types of downgraded predications:
(i)    Qualifying Predication（起形容词作用的述谓结构）: It occurs within an argument and underlies many of the ‘adjectival’ functions of syntax: adjectives, relative clauses, qualifying prepositional phrases, etc.
(ii)    Modifying Predication（起副词作用的述谓结构）: It occurs within an argument and underlies many of the ‘adverbial’ functions of syntax: adverbs, adverbial prepositional phrases, adverbial clauses, etc.
6.4    Advantages of Predication Analysis 述谓结构的优点
The theory of predication analysis is believed to be able to explain a number of meaning relations existing between sentences, especially those commonly viewed as semantic deviations.
a)    Entailment 蕴涵
Entailment means that a relation of entailment exists between two propositions which differ only in that an argument of one is hyponymous to an argument of the other.
b)    Inconsistency 自相矛盾
Inconsistency means that a relation of inconsistency exists between two propositions whenever the predicate of one is incompatible with that of the other.
c)    Tautology 同义反复
Tautology usually arises when the information contained in an argument of a predication includes the information contained in the rest of the predication.
d)    Contradiction 自相矛盾的说法
Contradiction arises when the information contained in an argument of a predication is incompatible with information contained in the predicate.
e)    Semantic Anomaly 意义反常
Semantic anomaly arises when one of the arguments or the predicate of the main predication is self-contradictory