11.反向转移Negative transfer
Negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰
干扰Interference
The effect of one’s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.
12.人际交流Intrapersonal communication
It refers to one of the two major functions that language serves. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
二、问答题
1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?
Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.
The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order. 
2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system.
Language is basically vocal.
Language is arbitrary.
Language is used for human communication.
3.what’s Broca’s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?
⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca’s area.
⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient’s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.
⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.
4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?
⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.
⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
⑶Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.
⑷It’s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner.
⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.
5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning?
⑴ the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features.
⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation.
⑶ The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning.
超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。
主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。
超切分特征区分意义。
6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?
语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？
⑴language change is inevitable.
⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.
⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar—in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.
⑷when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.
7.What’s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？
⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose. 
 
⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more.
⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation;
⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective.