o Analogical creation
p Borrowing
Loanwords/ Loanblend/ Loanshift/ Loan translation
2. Morpho-syntactical Change
j Morphological change
Theold forms of the second person thou, ye, and yee are now entirely replaced by a single form you, and thy by your.
k Syntactical change
At the time of Malory and Shakespeare, negation was expressed by putting the negative particle “not” at the end of the sentence, such as “I love thee not.”
3. Semantic Change
j Broadening
k Narrowing
l Meaning shift
m Class shift
n Folk etymology
4. Phonological change
j Loss
k Addition
l Metathesis
It is a process involving a change in the sequence of sounds.
m Assimilation
5. Orthographic Change
Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological change will no doubt set off graphic changes.
P Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology
« Text Book P24
=Phonetics can be divided into three main areas:
1. Articulatory Phonetics
2. Acoustic Phonetics
3. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics
=Phonology
« Text Book P25
=The human body that are involved in the production of speech:
The lung, the trachea(or Windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
= Vocal Tact
= the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the Oral Cavity and Nasal Cavity.
= Pharynx: inside the throat, the upper part.
= Larynx: inside the throat, the lower part.
« Text Book P26-27
= Vocal Folds (Vocal cords or Vocal bands)
= The vocal folds are either Apart, Close together or Totally closed.
1. Voiceless
2. Voiced
3. Glottal stop [ʔ]
= IPA
IPA refers to the acronym of the International Phonetic Association that was established by a small group of language teacher in France. It also stands for the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) first proposed by Danish grammarian and phonetician Otto Jesperson in 1886.
« Text Book P29
= Diacritics
The Diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances细微差别 of change in their pronunciation.
= Consonants & Vowels
In the description of sound segments, a basic distinction is made between consonants and vowels. Consonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”. By contrast, a vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded无障碍的 way through the mouth or nose”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
« Text Book P30-31-32
= The Manner of Articulation of a consonant
Stop(or Plosive)/ Nasal/ Fricative/ Approximant/ lateral/ Trill/ Tap and Flap/ Affricate
= Tap and Flap
There was a time when tap and flap were considered to be identical categories but more recently leading phoneticians generally agree that it is necessary to distinguish between the two.
When the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only one vibration, the sound is called a tap ([ɾ]). An example of the tap is the American substitution for [t, d, n] in words such as city and letter.
The flap ([ɽ]) is pronounced with the tip of the tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture and then striking the roof of the mouth as it returns to its position behind the lower front teeth. In American English, the flap occurs in words like dirty and sorting, after r-colored vowels in a stressed syllable.
= The Place of Articulation of a consonant
Bilabial/ Labiodental/ Dental/ Alveolar/ Postalveolar/ Retroflex/ Palatal/ Velar/ Uvular/ Pharyngeal/ Glottal/
=Retroflex卷舌音
课本p32 Putonghua 儿化音
« Text Book P33
= Cardinal Vowels
The Cardinal Vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.
The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [ə] the tongue is in a neutral position, the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position.
« Text Book P34
= Schwa: The neutral vowel [ə] is often referred to as SCHWA.
= Semi-Vowel
These segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories are called Semi-Vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].
= Pure or Monophthong Vowels 单元音
The vowels, the quality of which remain constant throughout the articulation, are called Pure or Monophthong Vowels.
= Vowel Glides 元音音渡
Vowels that involve an audible change of quality are Vowel Glides.
= Diphthongs 双元音
The Vowel Glides when a single movement of the tongue is made are called Diphthongs, e.g. [ei], [ai], etc.
= Triphthongs 三元音
The Vowel Glides when a double movement of the tongue is made are called triphthongs, e.g. [aiə], [auə], etc.
= RP (Received Pronunciation)
It is also called BBC English, Oxford English, or King’s/Queen’s English.
= GA (General American) P35
« Text Book P38-39-40
= Coarticulation
Anticipatory Coarticulation
Perseverative Coarticulation
Because sounds show the influence of their neighbors, when simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process Coarticulation.
If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as Anticipatory Coarticulation; it the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is Perseverative Coarticulation.
= Nasalization
= Broad Transcription
When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad Transcription.
Narrow Transcription
The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.
= Minimal Pairs
= Phoneme In English there are over 40 phonemes.
= Phonemic Transcription placed between slant lines
Phonetic transcription placed between square brackets
« Text Book P41-42-43
= Phone
It is a minimal sound segment that human speech organs can produce.
= Allophones
Allophones are variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in Complementary Distribution.
= Complementary Distribution
= The /p/ in peak is aspirated, phonetically transcribed as [ph] while the /p/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [p]. in this example, [p, ph] are two different Phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophones of the same phoneme.
= The phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in lead and deal, where in the second case the tongue is curled a little backwards towards the velum (Velarization). We also call this “dark l” and use the symbol [ɫ] in phonetic (or narrow) transcription. [l], as pronounced in lead, is called “clear l”. Consequently, lead is transcribed as [li:d] and deal as [di:ɫ] phonetically. The rule seems very simple: the phoneme /l/ is pronounced as [l] before a vowel and as [ɫ] after a vowel. They are in complementary distribution.
= The difference between Allophones and Free Variants
The Allophones are the phonetic variants caused by distribution rules, but the Free Variants are the phonetic variants caused by dialect or personal habit. (See p41,42)
For example, most Americans pronounce the word either as [I: ðə] whereas most British people say [ai ðə]. Individual differences may also determine the use of [direkt] or [dairekt] for the word direct.
= Assimilation
Regressive Assimilation
Progressive Assimilation
A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with “coarticulation”. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called Regressive Assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as Progressive Assimilation.
= Devoicing 清音化
English fricatives and affricates have showed that voiced sound become voiceless when followed by a voiceless sound. Only in this contexts and it does not occur with other sounds, such as stops and vowels.
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