Contradiction

　　A Contradiction is committed when two opposing statements are simultaneously

　　asserted. For example， saying “it is raining and it is not raining” is a co

　　ntradiction. Typically， however， the arguer obscures the contradiction to th

　　e point that the argument can be quite compelling. Take， for instance， the f

　　ollowing argument：

　　“We cannot know anything， because we intuitively realize that our thoughts a

　　re unreliable.“

　　This argument has an air of reasonableness to it. But “intuitively realize”

　　means “to know.” Thus the arguer is in essence saying that we know that we d

　　on't know anything. This is self-contradictory.

　　Equivocation

　　Equivocation is the use of a word in more than one sense during an argument.

　　This technique is often used by politicians to leave themselves an “out.” I

　　f someone objects to a particular statement， the politician can simply claim

　　the other meaning.

　　Example：

　　Individual rights must be championed by the government. It is right for one

　　to believe in God. So government should promote the belief in God.

　　In this argument， right is used ambiguously. In the phrase “individual right

　　s“ it is used in the sense of a privilege， whereas in the second sentence ri

　　ght is used to mean proper or moral. The questionable conclusion is possible

　　only if the arguer is allowed to play with the meaning of the critical word

　　right.

　　Circular Reasoning

　　Circular reasoning involves assuming as a premise that which you are trying

　　to prove. Intuitively， it may seem that no one would fall for such an argume

　　nt. However， the conclusion may appear to state something additional， or the

　　argument may be so long that the reader may forget that the conclusion was

　　stated as a premise.