Assimilation & elision effects
Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other
E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.
③ deletion rule-Elision
Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation
E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant
[I] Suprasegmental features
① Stress
Word stress & sentence stress
The stress of the English compounds always on the first element
② Tone
Definition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.
Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.
Level, rise, fall-rise, fall
③ Intonation
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone

Chapter 4  Morphology
[A] The definition of morphology
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Inflectional morphology
Derivational morphology (lexical morphology)
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words
(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)
[B] Free morphemes & bound morphemes
Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words
à Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.]
Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form
à Derivational morphemes----àaffix (suffix, infix, prefix) + root
à Inflectional morphemes à 8
8 types of inflectional morphemes in English
Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive; plural]
Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past participle]
Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]
[C] Derivational vs. inflectional
Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word
Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category;
Derivational morphemes are opposite
Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional
[D] Morphological Rules
N. +lyà a.; A. +lyà adv.; guard overgeneralization
[E] Morphs and allomorphs
Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes
Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.
[F] Word-formation process
① Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms
② Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages
Loan-translation (Claque)à a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language
Stand alone to be the opposite of word-formation
③ Compoundingà a joining of two separate words to produce a single form
Features of compounds
a)   Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
b)  Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
c)   Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.
d)  Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,
While the second element receives secondary stress.
④ Blendingà taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word
⑤ Clippingà a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form
⑥ Back formationà a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word
Hypocorismsàclipping or +ie
⑦ Conversionà category change, functional shift
⑧ Acronymsà new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words
⑨ Derivationà the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words
⑩ Abbreviationà a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form
Analogy

Chapter 5  Grammar
[A] Types of grammar
The study of grammar, or the study of the structure of expressions in a language, has a very long tradition.
① Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. à Psychologist
② Linguistic etiquette: the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. à Sociologist
③ The study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, e.g. as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French. à Linguist
[B] The parts of speech
Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions
à the grammatical categories of words in sentences
[C] Traditional grammar (Categories and analysis)
Other categories: number, person, tense, voice and gender
Agreement:
English languageßnatural gender
Grammatical genderà French
[D] Types of grammar concerning analysis
The prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of a language
The descriptive approach: analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.
[E] Structural and immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)
Structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a language
IC Analysis: how small constituents (Components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents
[F] Labeled and bracketed sentences
Hierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentence
Label each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NP

Chapter 6  Syntax
[A] The definition of syntax
A subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language
[B] The basic components of a sentence
Sentence

Subject                      Predicate
Referring expression         comprises finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject
[C] Types of sentences
Simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
Coordinate (Compound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…
Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other
Embedded clauseßà matrix clause
① subordinator  ②f unctions as a grammatical unit  ③ may be complete
[D] The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences
When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence, which suggests the structure of a sentence is linear.
But the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured; sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as NP or VP, grouped together.
Tree diagram of constituent structure
Brackets and subscript labels
[E] Some categories
Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate