1. Predication, argument and Predicate 述谓结构、变元和谓项

In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication, which is not identical to the proposition, but is rather the common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence

1. Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析

Predication analysis refers to the kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents --- arguments and predicates. There are three general types of predication --- two-place, one-place and no-place predications.

1. Subordinate and Downgraded Predications 从属述谓结构和降格述谓结构

1. Subordinate Predications 从属述谓结构

It is suggested in the theory that a predicate may govern not only arguments, but other predicates. These other predicates can form subordinate predications within the main predication.

2. Downgraded Predications 降格述谓结构

There is a second way in which one predication may be included within another. It is realized by reducing the predication still further to the status of a feature instead of that of an argument.

There are two main types of downgraded predications:

1. Qualifying Predication（起形容词作用的述谓结构）: It occurs within an argument and underlies many of the ‘adjectival’ functions of syntax: adjectives, relative clauses, qualifying prepositional phrases, etc.
2. Modifying Predication（起副词作用的述谓结构）: It occurs within an argument and underlies many of the ‘adverbial’ functions of syntax: adverbs, adverbial prepositional phrases, adverbial clauses, etc.
   1. Advantages of Predication Analysis 述谓结构的优点

The theory of predication analysis is believed to be able to explain a number of meaning relations existing between sentences, especially those commonly viewed as semantic deviations.

1. Entailment 蕴涵

Entailment means that a relation of entailment exists between two propositions which differ only in that an argument of one is hyponymous to an argument of the other.

2. Inconsistency 自相矛盾

Inconsistency means that a relation of inconsistency exists between two propositions whenever the predicate of one is incompatible with that of the other.

3. Tautology 同义反复

Tautology usually arises when the information contained in an argument of a predication includes the information contained in the rest of the predication.

4. Contradiction 自相矛盾的说法

Contradiction arises when the information contained in an argument of a predication is incompatible with information contained in the predicate.

5. Semantic Anomaly 意义反常

Semantic anomaly arises when one of the arguments or the predicate of the main predication is self-contradictory

6. Presupposition 前提

Presupposition refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker does not assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentence.

In a word, the componential analysis with the addition of predication analysis can serve as an adequate semantic theory to provide semantic representations for whole sentences. It can also enable us to make predications regarding entailment, inconsistency, contradiction and other meaning relations.

Exercises

I. Match each of the following terms in column A with one of the appropriate definitions in column B:

 Column A                   Column B

1. Semantics            A. Synonymy is used to mean ‘sameness of meaning’.
2. Inconsistency           B. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the

                           two items are called relational opposites.

3. Synonymy             C. Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate

                           forms between the two members of a pair.

4. subordinate predication   D. It refers to the case that two, or more meanings may be

                           associated with the same linguistic form.

5. polysemy              E. Presupposition refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker does

                           not assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentence.

6. Antonymy              F. It is suggested in the theory that a predicate may govern not only

                           arguments, but other predicates.

7. relational opposites       G. It refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set of

                           different meanings.

8. homonymy             H. Inconsistency means that a relation of inconsistency exists between

                            two propositions whenever the predicate of one is incompatible

                            with that of the other.

9. gradable opposites        I. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in

                           language.

10. presupposition          J. Antonymy refers to the ‘oppositeness of meaning’ between lexemes.

II. Explain each of the following terms in no more than 50 words:

1. reference              2. entailment            3. semantic triangle

4. hyponymy             5. predication           6. behaviorism     

7. downgraded predication  8. sentence meaning      9. selectional restriction   

10. naming theory         11. sense

III. Develop each of the following topics into a 200-word essay

1. What distinction, would you drawn between sense and reference?

3. Explain and exemplify componential analysis and predication analysis.

VI. Pragmatics 语用学

本章学习目的要求

语用学是语言学研究中一个比较新的领域,语用学的兴起是语言学,特别是语义学发展和深入的结果。通过本章的学习，首先要对语用学和传统语义学研究之间的关系，以及诸如语境和话语意义等语用研究中的一些基本概念有所了解。同时，还要求对语用研究中最重要的理论———言语行为理论，和最主要的一条原则———会话原则有初步的了解，并能用来解释一些语言现象。

语用学基本知识

1. What does pragmatics study? 语用学是什么？

Pragmatics is the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communication.

The development of pragmatics within linguistics is the necessary  consequence of the development of linguistic studies, especially that of semantics. Although both pragmatics and semantics basically study meaning, pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in context.

1. sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义与话语意义

Sentence meaning refers to the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition. On the other hand, utterance meaning is context-dependent. It is generally regarded as the product of sentence meaning and context; therefore the meaning of an utterance is richer than the meaning of the sentence from which it is derived. Utterance meaning is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentence.

1. Context 语境

Context is an important notion in the pragmatic study of meaning. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. It includes background knowledge, i.e. knowledge of the world, knowledge specific to the situation of communication, as well as knowledge of the language they use.

2. Speech Act Theory 言语行为理论

The speech act theory proposed by John Austin is an important theory in the study of meaning as related to the context. According to this theory, we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking; thus linguistic communication is composed of a succession of acts.

1. Constative and Performative Utterances 陈述性话语与行为性话语

Austin first made the primary distinction between two types of utterances: constative and performative. The constative utterance is verifiable and it is either true or false. The performative utterance is used o perform an action and has no true value. But Austin was not satisfied with it; he finally conducted a new model.

1. Austin’s New Model 奥斯汀的新模式

According to Austin’s new model, a speaker, while making an utterance, is in most cases performing three acts simultaneously.

1. A Locutionary Act 以言指事行为

A locutionary act is the act of saying something; it is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

2. An Illocutionary Act 以言做事行为

An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.

3. A Perlcutionary Act 以言成事行为

A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.

1. Searle’s Contributions to the Speech Act Theory 斯尔对言语行为理论的贡献

1. The Distinction and Relatedness between the Propositional Content and Illocutionary Act

The propositional content of an utterance is constituted by what object is being referred to in the utterance and what action is predicated about the object.

2. The Classification of Illocutionary Act 以言做事行为的分类

Searle specifies five general types of Illocutionary acts

1. Representatives 阐述类

The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of the expressed proposition. In other words, while performing this type of act, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.

2. Directives 指令类

 Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instance of this class.

3. Commissives 承诺类

Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases.

4. Expressives 表达类

The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the propositional content. The speaker is expressing his feelings and attitudes towards the existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.

5. Declarations 宣布类

 The last class ‘declarations’ has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality.

3. Principles of Conversation 会话原则
   1. The Co-operative Principle 合作原则

   In making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guiding principle the Cooperative Principle. He further specifies four maxims:

1. The Maxim of Quantity 量的准则

1. Make your contribution as informative as required.
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

2. The Maxim of Quality 质的准则

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Dot not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

3. The Maxim of Relation 关系准则

Be relevant

4. The Maxim of Manner 方式准则

1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity
3. Be brief.
4. Be orderly.

   These maxims are not always strictly observed. Rather, for various reasons they are often violated. Some of these violations give rise to what Grice terms “conversational implicatures”. In other words, when we violate any of these maxims, our language might become indirect.

1. The Politeness Principle 礼貌

The cooperative principle explains how conversational implicature is given rise to but it does not tell us why people are often so indirect in conveying what they want to say. This is where the politeness principle comes in. In the most general terms, the politeness principle can be formulated as “maximize” the expression of polite beliefs”, or, in its negative form, “Minimize the expression of impolite beliefs.

The politeness principle seems to have a higher regulative role than the cooperative principle because it requires for smooth and effective communication.

Exercises

1. Match each of the following terms in column A with one of the appropriate definitions in column B:

    Column A                   column B

1. locutionary act            A. The speaker is expressing his feelings and attitudes towards the

                             existing state of affairs,

2. illocutionary act           B. The last class ‘declarations’ has the characteristic that the