In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when A is true, B must be also true; when B is false, A must also be false. When B is true, A may be true or false. Therefore we can say A entails B.
32.    Proposition: It is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. For example, the two sentences “Caesar invaded Gaul” and “Gaul was invaded by Caesar” hold the same proposition.
33.    Compositional analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.
34.    Reference: It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.
V.
35.
    Hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship
36.
    (Omit.)
VI.
37.
    (1)    The (a) words and (b) words are male.
        The (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.
    (2)    The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.
        The (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.
    (3)    The (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.
        The (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.

Test Six
I.
1~5    DBCBA                    6~10 CBCAD
II.
11~15 FTTFF                    16~20 FFFTT
III.
21. context                    22. utterance   
23. abstract                     24. Constatives
25. Performatives              26. locutionary 
27. illocutionary                  28. commissive  
29. expressive                   30. quantity
IV.
31.    Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.
32.    Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).
33.    Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.
34.    Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).
V.
35.   
Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of
    (1)    How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;
    (2)    How speakers use and understand speech acts;
(3)    How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.
    Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.
36.   
Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant information, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”
VI.
37.
    It occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.
    The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.
    (1)   
a.    A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.
        b.    In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”
        c.    The room was wanted for a meeting.
(2)   
a.    A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.
b.    A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.
c.    That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.

Test Seven
I.
1~5 BCAAC                    6~10 DACAD
II.
11~15 FTFFF                    16~20 TFTFF
III.
21. community                22. variety
23. dialectal                   24. planning
25. sociolects                    26. Stylistic
27. official                       28. superposed
29. vernacular                   30. inflectional
IV.
31.    Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.
32.    Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.
33.    Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.
34.    Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.
V.
35.
American English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.
36.   
    In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot more kinship words than in English.
VI.
37.
    (Omit.)

Test Eight
I.
1~5 BACAA                    6~10 ABDCC
II.
11~15 FFTTF                    16~20 FTTTF
III.
21. synchronic                    22. phonetics
23. J. R. Firth                    24. systemic
25. sociologically                26. distribution
27. Bloomfieldian                28. Descriptivism
29. innateness                    30. hypothesis-maker
IV.
31.    FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.
32.    Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or is dominated by others.
33.    LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.
34.    Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.
V. VI. Omit.